Everything about The Republic Of Indonesia totally explained
The
Republic of Indonesia , is a nation in
Southeast Asia. Comprising
17,508 islands, it's the world's largest
archipelagic state. With a population of 222 million people in 2006, it's the world's fourth
most populous country and the most populous
Muslim-majority nation, although officially it isn't an
Islamic state. Indonesia is a
republic, with an elected parliament and
president. The nation's capital city is
Jakarta. The country shares land borders with
Papua New Guinea,
East Timor and
Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include
Singapore,
the Philippines,
Australia, and the Indian territory of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when the
Srivijaya Kingdom formed trade links with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Under Indian influence,
Hindu and
Buddhist kingdoms flourished from the early centuries CE. Muslim traders brought
Islam, and
European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the
Spice Islands of
Maluku during the
Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of
Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured
its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism,
a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The
Javanese are the largest and most politically dominant ethnic group. As a
unitary state and a
nation, Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by
a national language,
a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto,
"Bhinneka tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity"
lit. "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent confrontations that have undermined political and economic stability. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of
biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia.
Etymology
The name
Indonesia derives from the Latin
Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek
nesos, meaning "island". The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Earl, an English
ethnologist, proposed the terms
Indunesians — and, his preference,
Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago". In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used
Indonesia as a synonym for
Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in
East Indies publications were reluctant to use
Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms
Malay Archipelago (
Maleische Archipel); the
Netherlands East Indies (
Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly
Indië;
the East (
de Oost); and even
Insulinde.
From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.
Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book
Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayichen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was
Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name
Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.
Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native
Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of
wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE,
allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.
From the seventh century CE, the powerful
Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist
Sailendra and Hindu
Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's
Borobudur and Mataram's
Prambanan. The Hindu
Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under
Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.
Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the
earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern
Sumatra. Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam which became the dominant religion in
Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by
Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of
nutmeg,
cloves, and
cubeb pepper in
Maluku. Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the
Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the
Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.
For most of the
colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. The
Japanese invasion and
subsequent occupation during
World War II ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945,
Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an
armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence (with the exception of The Dutch territory of
West New Guinea, which was incorporated following the 1962
New York Agreement, and
UN—mandated
Act of Free Choice).
Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of
the Military, Islam, and the
Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).
An attempted coup on
30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Between 500,000 and one million people were killed. The head of the military,
General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His
New Order administration was supported by the US government, and encouraged
foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.
In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the
Asian Financial Crisis. This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to
popular protests. Suharto resigned on
21 May 1998. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of often brutal repression of the East Timorese. The
Reformasi era following Suharto's resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, and the first
direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in
Aceh was achieved in 2005.
Government and politics
Indonesia is a
republic with a
presidential system. As a
unitary state, power is concentrated in the national government. Following the
resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the
1945 Constitution of Indonesia have revamped the
executive,
judicial, and
legislative branches. The president of Indonesia is the
head of state,
commander-in-chief of the
Indonesian Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The
2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president. The president serves a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.
The highest representative body at national level is the
People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president. The MPR comprises two houses; the
People's Representative Council (DPR), with 550 members, and the
Regional Representatives Council (DPD), with 168 members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by
proportional representation. The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.
Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court is the country's highest court, and hears final cassation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.
Foreign relations and military
In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and
tensions with Malaysia,
Indonesia's foreign relations approach since the Suharto "New Order" has been one of economic and political cooperation with Western nations. Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in
Asia, and is a founding member of
ASEAN and the
East Asia Summit. The nation restored relations with the
People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era. and was a founder of the
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the
Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC).
The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the
Bali resort town of
Kuta in 2002. The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, have severely damaged Indonesia's
tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.
Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI-AU). The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations. In the post-Suharto period since 1998, formal TNI representation in parliament has been removed; though curtailed, its political influence remains extensive. Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. Following a sporadic thirty year guerrilla war between the
Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005. In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and
human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.
Administrative divisions
Administratively, Indonesia consists of
33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (
kabupaten) and cities (
kota), which are further subdivided into subdistricts (
kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either
desa or
kelurahan). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected
lurah or
kepala desa (village chief).
Aceh,
Jakarta,
Yogyakarta,
Papua, and
West Papua provinces have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of
Sharia (Islamic law). Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.
Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001. Jakarta is the country's special capital region.
Indonesian provinces and their capitals
(Indonesian name in brackets where different from English)
† indicates provinces with Special Status
Sumatra
Geography
Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited. These are scattered over both sides of the
equator. The five largest islands are
Java,
Sumatra,
Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of
Borneo),
New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and
Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with
Malaysia on the islands of
Borneo and
Sebatik,
Papua New Guinea on the island of
New Guinea, and
East Timor on the island of
Timor. Indonesia also shares borders with
Singapore, Malaysia, and the
Philippines to the north and
Australia to the south across narrow straits of water. The capital,
Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by
Surabaya,
Bandung,
Medan, and
Semarang.
At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area. Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world, although Java, the world's most populous island, has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 meters (16,024 ft),
Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and
Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the
Mahakam and
Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.
Indonesia's location on the edges of the
Pacific,
Eurasian, and
Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous
volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least
150 active volcanoes, including
Krakatoa and
Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the
Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a
global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the
2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra, and the
Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However,
volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.
Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a
tropical climate, with two distinct
monsoonal
wet and
dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily
temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).
Ecology
Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of
biodiversity (after Brazil), and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and
Australasian species. Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the
Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the
tiger,
rhinoceros,
orangutan,
elephant, and
leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically.
Forests cover approximately 60% of the country. In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a
unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.
Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal
ecosystems, including beaches,
sand dunes,
estuaries,
mangroves,
coral reefs,
sea grass beds,
coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. Known as the
Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep
Lombok Strait, between
Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they're increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book,
The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the surrounding area, which is now termed
Wallacea. Issues include large-scale
deforestation (much of it
illegal) and related wildfires causing
heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid
urbanization and
economic development, including
air pollution,
traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and
waste water services.
Economy
Indonesia's estimated
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2007 is US$408 billion (US$1,038 bn
PPP). In 2007, estimated nominal
per capita GDP is US$1,812, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,616 (
International Dollars). The
services sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 45.3% of GDP (2005). This is followed by
industry (40.7%) and
agriculture (14.0%). However, agriculture employs more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce. This is followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%). Major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices, and rubber.
Indonesia's main export markets (2005) are Japan (22.3%), the United States (13.9%), China (9.1%), and Singapore (8.9%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a
trade surplus with
export revenues of US$83.64 billion and
import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought
a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled
foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only member of
OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates. Following further reforms in the late 1980s, foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented
manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the
East Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. Against the US dollar, the currency dropped from about Rp. 2,000 to Rp. 18,000, and the economy shrunk by 13.7%. The
rupiah has since stabilized at around Rp. 10,000, and there has been a slow but significant economic recovery. Political instability since 1998, slow economic reform, and corruption at all levels of government and business, have contributed to the patchy nature of the recovery. (
Transparency International, for example, ranked Indonesia 143rd out of 180 countries in its 2007
Corruption Perceptions Index). GDP growth, however, exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005, and is forecast to increase further. This growth rate, however, isn't enough to make a significant impact on unemployment, and stagnant wages growth, and increases in fuel and rice prices have worsened poverty levels.
As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population live below the
poverty line, 49.0% of the population live on less than US$2 per day, and unemployment rate at 9.75%.
Demographics
The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million, and the Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and
Statistics Indonesia estimate a population of 222 million for 2006. 130 million people live on the island of
Java, the world's most populous island. Despite a fairly effective
family planning program, which has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 315 million in 2035, based on the current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25%.
Most Indonesians are descendant from
Austronesian-speaking peoples, who originated from Taiwan. The other major grouping are
Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia. There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects. The largest is the
Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant. The
Sundanese, ethnic
Malays, and
Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strongly maintained regional identities. Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.
Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than 2% of the population. Much of the country's privately-owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-controlled, which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.
The official national language,
Indonesian, is universally taught in schools, and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was originally a
lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia, and is thus closely related to
Malay. Indonesian was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the
official language on independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the
several hundred local languages (
bahasa daerah), often as their
first language. Of these,
Javanese is the most widely-spoken, the language of the largest ethnic group. On the other hand, Papua has 500 or more indigenous
Papuan and
Austronesian languages, in a region of just 2.7 million people. Much of the older population can still speak a level of Dutch.
Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution, the government officially recognizes only six religions:
Islam;
Protestantism;
Roman Catholicism;
Hinduism;
Buddhism; and
Confucianism. Although it isn't an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with almost 86% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000
census. 11% of the population is
Christian, 2% are Hindu, and 1% Buddhist. Most Indonesian Hindus are
Balinese, and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese. Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in
Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century. Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch
Calvinist and
Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period. A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese
abangan, Balinese Hindus, and
Dayak Christians—practice a less
orthodox,
syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs.
Culture
Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with
cultural differences developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian,
Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do
wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as
batik,
ikat and
songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on
Indonesian architecture have traditionally been
Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. The most popular sports in Indonesia are
badminton and
football;
Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include
sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as,
caci in
Flores, and
pasola in
Sumba.
Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art. Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.
Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European,
Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. Rice is the main
staple food and is served with
side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili),
coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients. Indonesian traditional music includes
gamelan and
keroncong.
Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The
Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia, although it declined significantly in the
early 1990s. Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased. and proletarian writer
Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly-rooted
oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.
Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President
Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media. The
TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public
TVRI. Private
radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 20 million users in 2007, Internet usage is limited to a minority of the population, approximately 8.5%.
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